Pacaya-Samiria: A Jungle Haven

Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve.

Peering at the river’s glass water, which reflected the rich green of the forest canopy standing tall from both sides, I noticed a slight ripple followed by the splash of Amazonia’s beloved and famed pink river dolphin. It was unmistakable—large and uniquely pink in color with the fleeting appearance of its long snout and fins. This was my first dolphin sighting in Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, but would certainly not be my last.

Much of my time in Amazonia has been spent in lowland secondary forest, where recent human disturbances have potentially impacted wildlife populations and I am thrilled to catch a glimpse of a monkey. At Pacaya-Samiria, it was impossible to miss the troop of 20 or more squirrel monkeys climb across the vines that hang into the river as the bellowing roar of howler monkeys echoed from deep within the jungle.

Peru was the first nation to establish protected areas in Amazonia. This began with the creation of the Pacaya Reserve in 1940 and the Samiria Reserve in 1954. Now referred to as Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, this extremely seasonal and high-nutrient flooded forest is located in the Marañon-Ucayali subsidence area. It covers an area of 20, 800 km, about the size of Israel.

For three days, I lived with other students on a boat parked within this reserve. This is where I learned of the various threats to flooded forest wildlife populations as well as the importance of long-term wildlife monitoring and of setting aside protected areas for these animals to thrive in their natural habitats.

The question of climate change in flooded forests of Amazonia

Like the stock market, flooded forests experience a boom and bust cycle in water levels. Research in Pacaya-Samiria reveals the potential impact of climate change on variability of dry and wet seasons in the flooded forest.

An article published in Conservation Biology journal details a study conducted by Dr. Richard Bodmer, of Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, and his team within the reserve. According to the article, climate change intensifies water cycles, increasing intensity and duration of flooding during wet seasons and creating low-water levels and less precipitation in dry seasons. These fluctuations shift wildlife populations, which are largely influenced by flooding and droughts.

The article described the five consecutive years of above normal flooding in the Peruvian Amazon from 2011 to 2015 during the high-water seasons, preceded by one year of intense drought in 2010. This was the longest period of high flood pulses since 1973 to 1977. Water level was significantly higher, with very few dry patches of levee forest remaining in Samiria River basin. Levees are long stretches of slightly raised land formed by changes in river channels.

These years were defined by the research team as historic flood levels. The team surveyed wildlife to estimate the effect of these intensive floods on aquatic, terrestrial and arboreal communities by gathering population densities.

Results indicated a severe crash in terrestrial mammal populations, which decreased by over 95 percent during the years coinciding with high water levels. In 2015, no terrestrial mammals were sighted. Terrestrial animals in this region include white-lipped peccary, red-brocket deer, agouti, anteater, armadillo and capybara. When water levels increase, these animals swim to dry levee forests to take refuge. High flooded years force terrestrial mammals onto smaller areas, increasing competition and predation. The historic flooding levels saw drowning in terrestrial mammals.

The lowland tapir, the largest terrestrial animal in the Amazon, was the only member of the terrestrial group not affected. According to Bodmer, this is can be attributed to their abilities to swim and breathe while under water with their snorkel-like prehensile trunks.

Arboreal species include squirrels, sloths, primates, birds, bats, among others that live in trees. Overall, this group remained stable during the high floods. The primates who are most successful in flooded forests are those that can alter their diet, because during floods, fruits drop from the canopy into the river to disperse seeds. Woolly monkeys eat leaves during floods and tamarin monkeys drill holes in trees to eat insects, while spider monkey populations are low in flooded forests because they eat fruits year-round. Wildlife that can climb trees or have arboreal habits escaped the effects of floods. However, arboreal species could experience populations changes resulting from decreased seed dispersal of mammals, which could alter forest structure and food resource availability.

Aquatic species, including fish, dolphin, caiman, and otters, also remained stable during these high floods. Pacaya-Samiria, as the largest flooded forest in the area, has a large fish population. According to the Bodmer article, during high-water seasons fish enter the flooded forest to access the abundant resources. The fallen fruits in flooded forest rivers become food sources for fish stocks, which explains their increase up until 2015. The intensive flooding extended their breeding seasons, increasing their stocks. In the dry season, water recedes and large numbers of fish migrate form the Samiria River basin into the larger Marañón River where groups of birds and dolphins feed on the fish.

The Cocama indigenous people of Pacaya-Samiria have taken measures to adapt to these multi-year climatic cycles and how this alters the availability of fish and wild meat sources. In response to shifts in wildlife populations resulting from these high floods, Cocama people increased fishing and decreased hunting. The increased fish stocks during flooding compensated for decreases in wild meat.

“Cocama are very adaptable. They have to be,” Bodmer said in a lecture. “This adaptive strategy to climate change is surely not new.”

The increased variability which resulted in the five years of intensive flooding is potentially climate-induced, according to the article. However, Bodmer stressed that this theory has limitations, especially in foreseeing the consequences climate change poses on our future.

“What we know is the current situation. We can’t predict the future very well,” he said.

However, the article does paint a picture of the future based on this phenomenon. The worst conditions, both for wildlife and the local people, would be in the years of consecutive floods followed by consecutive droughts. The flooding would diminish terrestrial populations, and fish mortality during the drought would occur quicker than the recovery of wild meat species. This would threaten food security and possibly heighten unsustainable hunting and fishing.

Climate change could therefore lead to the unraveling of a series of events that would further exacerbate environmental damage. The article presented the need for maintenance of habitats and wildlife population, prevention of overuse and deforestation, and the sustainable use of food resources.

“Conservation scientists need to know how physical changes result in biological changes in wildlife and how these cause change in resource use, sustainability and management of local people in Loreto region of Peruvian Amazon,” the article stated.

Protecting the plethora of life

Climate is not the single perpetrator of biodiversity loss. In Amazonia, biodiversity is threatened by pollution—including the contamination of water due to oil drilling; land use changes—including the building of dams and urbanization; and overexploitation of resources—including overgrazing, logging, overhunting, overfishing, and many exploitative activities that contribute to deforestation.

These practices are mitigated by the successful establishment of co-managed protected areas—spaces such as Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve that integrate local people in reserve management. Certain activities are still permitted in the reserve, such as sustainable resource use and traditional activities of subsistence fishing and hunting.

Bodmer works with Earthwatch volunteer groups to monitor wildlife populations in Pacaya-Samiria. He has worked in the reserve for over 20 years and promotes co-management of the land between natives and government agencies. Bodmer has written about the economic importance of bushmeat hunting to rural poor Amazonians.

“If well managed, bushmeat hunting can provide long-term socioeconomic benefits to local communities and help conserve Amazonian biodiversity through maintaining intact rainforests,” he wrote in a chapter of Wildlife and Society: The Science of Human Dimensions. “If poorly managed, bushmeat hunting will lead to the extirpation of animal populations, reduced socioeconomic benefits that rural people obtain from wildlife, and a decreased value of intact forests.”

Throughout the duration of my time in the reserve, I contributed to this long-term wildlife monitoring data collection. Surveys of wildlife were divided into those monitoring resource-use species—those used by people such as fish, caiman and tapir; and indicator species—those not used directly by humans such as dolphin and macaws. Healthy abundance of these species indicates a healthy ecosystem.

We conducted surveys both on boat and in the forest. For a set distance or time, we recorded the number of animals detected as well as their behavior, size and other additional information. We monitored dolphin, fishing bats, wading birds, macaws, fish, terrestrial mammals, and caiman. Wildlife abundance can be compared between these standardized surveys throughout time to estimate if there are declines or upsurges in animal populations.

Dolphins, including pink and grey, are considered indicators of the aquatic system. This species is highly valued by local people and are therefore not threatened by hunting. However, they will move out of the area with significant changes to the ecosystem. A species considered rare to view, pink river dolphins bounded from the water in groups as commonly it seemed as birds flew overhead.

Fishing bats, which we monitored at night, are indicators of the small fish. In swarms, these bats flew just above the surface of the water, at any moment ready to dip down to catch their fish prey. Bodmer said wading bird populations are more reliable indicators of fish populations than the fish themselves because these are their food sources. I observed kingfishers, egrets, horn-screamers, herons, the Amazon tern, a hoatzin, among many others.

Macaws are fruit-eaters and are therefore indicators of the forest system. If fruit is scarce, they move from the region. The blue-and-yellow macaw is common in flooded forests and at Pacaya-Samiria they soared in flocks above the forest canopy calling to each other in raspy intonations. Parrots were largely traded as pets in the 1970s through the 1980s. Many countries have placed restrictions on the trade or prohibited it entirely. However, Bodmer said captive breeding in the pet trade has increased in the United States.

Until coming to Amazonia, my best knowledge of parrots came from interacting with pet macaws. Observing these animals in the wild, flying freely within their large natural habitat, illustrated the extent to which the pet trade restrains the natural habits of these birds and the significance of protecting them from the cage.

We monitored fish population by using net and line to catch the fish for an hour. We weighed and measured them before returning them to the river. My group recorded data for 79 fish, including piranhas, sardines and armored catfish.

Monitoring fish populations in Pacaya-Samiria.

Piranha.

Armored catfish.

Measuring fish for data collection.

During terrestrial transects, I observed monk saki monkeys, white capuchin monkeys and woolly monkeys. I also watched a troop of howler monkeys leap from one tree to the next. A truly unique experience was watching one of the larger members of this group form a bridge between the two trees, allowing a smaller howler to walk across its back.

Apart from the animals monitored, I saw squirrel monkeys, river otters, capybara, toucans, turtles, and a sloth hanging from a tree. This is an impressive list considering my little experience in wildlife detection and my limited time at the reserve. Within Pacaya-Samiria, even the untrained eye will have an easy time viewing the plethora of wildlife and will come to appreciate the value of observing species in the wild.

Protecting the jungle’s apex predators

Caiman are crocodilians similar to the alligator but with an armored belly and native to tropical America. Caiman populations found in Pacaya-Samiria include the black caiman—the jungle’s apex predator that can reach up to five meters long, the smooth fronted or dwarf caiman—among the smallest caiman in size, and the spectacled caiman—almost the size of the black caiman.

Caiman are nocturnal and therefore we surveyed them by boat along the river at night using spotlights to detect caiman eyeshine. Once their presence was indicated, additional observations such as size and species were gathered if possible.

The spectacled caiman population demonstrated a long-term decrease, according to the Bodmer article, before the intensification of river levels. They continued to decrease during years of consecutive flooding, while black caiman had stable populations during these years.

In the 1960s to mid-70s, black caimans were exploited for their leather pelts which caused major deterioration to their population. A large quantity of these were exported to the United States. CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, is an international agreement between governments which seeks to guarantee that international trade in wild animal and plant specimens does not threaten their survival. Under CITES, caiman fall into the category of species that cannot be traded internationally, as animals or products, unless for scientific purposes.

Despite a population renewal, caiman is still used by Amazonian people in Loreto, Peru. Bodmer said this use results in lower numbers of caiman in the Loreto rivers compared to the relatively healthy populations found in the protected Pacaya-Samiria. Bodmer said a household interview found that one to two caimans are consumed each year.

Censuses of black caiman in Pacaya-Samiria in 1995 when the reserve administration implemented strict control over local people, and in 2005 when park management began to involve local communities in co-management, revealed an increase in black caiman populations within the reserve. This coincided with reduced hunting levels.

“Many local people changed their attitude toward the reserve and began to see long-term benefits of the reserve,” Bodmer wrote in Wildlife and Society. “The reserve became part of their future plans, and there was increasing interest in getting involved.”

While caiman populations are protected and maintained in Pacaya-Samiria, elsewhere in Loreto I have only witnessed caiman as commercial products for consumption in Belen Market. Caiman are an example that underscores the contrast in wildlife populations between protected and unprotected areas.

Caiman for sell in the Belen Market in Iquitos, Peru.

Pacaya-Samiria exemplified the potential for a forest ecosystem to flourish once protected from unsustainable and non-managed practices. It exemplified the importance of long-term data monitoring both to detect shifts in wildlife populations and to use that information as an indication of the ecosystem’s overall health. In the wake of climate change, it is vital to be prepared for the future by being armed with as much information as possible.

“We want to be able to deal with climate change and make decisions for moving forward,” Bodmer said.

As someone who has witnessed both unprotected and protected Amazonian jungle, I can attest to the higher wildlife population levels in the reserve. This can be seen simply with the human eye; no data collection is needed for my conclusion. However, not everyone is lucky enough to have observed and compared different regions of Amazonia. Wildlife monitoring is essential to convey this information. It’s use is necessary to influence policy and justify setting aside this space for the preservation of wildlife within a healthy forest for generations to come.

From jungle to mountains: conservation and culture in the Andes

I traveled to the Peruvian Amazon to explore the jungle’s famed biodiversity, to study the threats that loom over such a valuable and productive ecosystem, and to immerse myself in the distinct culture. Living in the Amazon, shut off from much of modern civilization, it is easy to feel as if the jungle itself is its own country—it is large enough to be. In comparison to other countries containing Amazon rainforest, the Peruvian Amazon is less connected with the rest of the country. However, my recent trip served as a reminder that I am both within Amazonia and the larger Peruvian nation.

Upon traveling to the Andes and stepping off the airplane, I at first felt as if I was entering an entirely new country. The wardrobe and the surrounding architecture, as well as the stunning mountainous landscape and cool climate, were sharply divergent features in comparison to the Amazon. However, with deeper examination I found similarities between the two cultures related to the preservation of their rich cultures and their relationship with the environment. My visit also revealed a variety of human activities that threaten biodiversity and responses in the form of community conservation initiatives.

The sceneries I observed in the Andes were among the most magnificent I’ve seen in my life. As we drove and hiked along this highland landscape, I admired mountains of intimidating stature and vibrant valleys where horses grazed. Being both tourist and student, I had an eye for not only the physical beauty but also the cultural and environmental implications of the region.

Mountain men versus jungle dwellers

Peru is characterized by two distinct yet equally renowned natural landscapes—both the Amazon jungle and the Andes. I have been among Amazonian natives, as described in previous writing, and find that the distinct environments harbor certain differences between the two cultures. Yet both share a connection with the natural world and this is expressed in their cultures.

One of the most noticeable differences in culture spotted between these two groups is the wardrobe. In the Amazon, where the climate is hot and humid, most locals where t-shirts and jeans. There are traditional clothing items used by natives—feathers and other parts of animals used to make decorative dress for ceremonies and special occasions. However, the traditional dress of the Andes is seen in more abundance. In Cusco, the dress is typically modern while in other places there is a mixture.

Climate largely impacts the traditional dress of the people of the Peruvian Andes. The cool climate necessitates warm layers. The alpacas, llamas, and sheep of this region have thick wool coats for this purpose. The Andean people take advantage of this by making colorful wool clothing. These can be seen sold in shops in Pisac, Cusco and elsewhere. The traditional “look” consists of braided hair, wool skirts and sweaters, large colorful blanket-like bags tied around their bodies, wool ponchos, and occasionally chullo hats.

Native Andeans collect wool from alpaca, sheep and llama. They sheer and wash the wool using five natural shampoos from plants. They spin the thread to create bundles of yarn, often while doing other activities. They use a variety of plants to dye the yarn, giving them rich colors— black, blue, purple, orange, pink, red, green, and shades of these. They wrap the yarn around sticks to begin weaving. A scarf takes 15 days to weave and the women spend six to seven hours per day on weaving.

Buildings in the Andes, especially those located near to Cusco, are very uniform and aesthetically pleasing. The buildings are typically white with the brown terra cotta roofing characteristic of Spanish culture. Some of these buildings are considered sacred. Cuzco, which was the Incan Empire’s capital, still contains examples of Inca architecture including the world-famous Machu Picchu.

In the Andes, Quechua is the primary native language. The Inca Empire was originally a mixture of languages, but the Incas adopted Quechua as the dominant of these. Native peoples in both the Andes and Amazonia strive to conserve their traditional native tongues.

Natives of both regions place spiritual importance in having a harmonious relationship with the environment. What they both call “the good life” in separate languages represents a relationship with the environment that involves using its resources practically and sustainably. For both, the environment is a necessary part of their livelihoods and provides for their daily needs.

Natives of the Andes use plants to treat cramps, muscle soreness, bruises, sore throat, colds, altitude sickness, stomach aches, coughs, parasites, among other conditions. This was reminiscent of the medicinal plants used by shamans in the Amazon. Both cultures demonstrate and intimate relationship with their environment through the resourceful use of medicinal plants.

Anthropogenic threats to the Andean environment

The Amazon rainforest, among the most biodiverse places on earth, is distinguished by the multitude of questions it poses regarding environmental threats. The Andes faces its own set of concerns for the preservation of its environment.

One of the most picturesque qualities of the Andes is the grazing of cattle and horses along the slopes and valleys. However, if unchecked this activity could pose an environmental threat. A major conservation issue of the Andes is soil erosion. The mountains here exhibit discoloration at certain spots—They appear brown and white from fire scars. This happens in the dry season, when animals come to graze, and is followed by a wet season of heavy rain. The rain washes away the top soil and organic soil increasing erosion and landslides. The causes of the fires are usually man-made and due to efforts to manage vegetation and “chacras”—farmland.

The Andean bear is threatened by habitat loss, climate change and illegal killing due to false perceptions and conflicts. The bear is important to protect because it is a seed disperser and it has the capacity to modify the forest structure. For example, bear movement results in crushing branches which allows light to enter benefiting vegetation growth.

These bears are often targeted because they raid corn crops and attack livestock. Research among two communities at Manu Biosphere Reserve revealed negative perceptions of the bear, complaints about it killing cattle and threats to kill the bear. This research, along with gaining a better understanding of the Andean bear behavior and its interactions with humans, are necessary to conserve this species.

The conservation threat of climate change was demonstrated at the cloud forest in Wayqecha. Temperatures decrease with increased elevation, and currently there must be a minimum temperature of 18 degrees Celsius for cloud formation to begin. With the increased temperatures caused by climate change, the elevation at which this temperature occurs will increase. This will likely affect cloud coverage and the abundance of fog causing plant dryness because cloud forests derive 40 to 50 percent of their water input from fog.

A relatively new, ambitious, and unprecedented research project by Dr. Dan Metcalfe, professor at Lund University in Sweden, is located at the Manu National Park to study how cloud forests respond to a shift in cloud base. Long green curtains cover a portion of the mountain, disallowing the entrance of fog. The goals of the experiment are to measure how reducing fog water input will affect the water cycle, carbon flux, and plant survival, growth and diversity. The amount of fog input is measured inside and outside of this area as well as other factors—biomass accumulation of trees by measuring tree circumferences over time, respiration of plants by using PVC pipes to monitor carbon dioxide levels, and an array of effects on plants.

For example, epiphytes will be studied to determine if the decreased fog affects their growth. Epiphytes are a good indicator of climate change and important to cloud forest functioning. According to an article by Thomas G. Pypker of Thompson Rivers University, epiphytic lichens and bryophytes increase canopy water storage capacity and alter the transfer of water through the canopy. This research project is estimated to take place over a 10-year period.

Fortunately, there were multiple initiatives to preserve this ecosystem in the Andes including the potato park and Abra Malaga.

The Potato Park

The potato park in the Sacred Valley is a place I would recommend to anyone traveling in Peru who wants a taste of the rich, traditional cultures of the Andes. This park is an example of utilizing community engagement for conservation initiatives. Six communities work together to harvest a diverse number of potato varieties. The park covers 9,800 square hectares with a population of 6,500 people and is at an altitude of 3,200 to 5,000 meters above sea level. Distinct groups contribute 10 percent of their revenue to the park and communities are ranked based on their contributions. The ranking determines the amount of money received by that community from the potato fund, thus encouraging healthy competition in the name of biodiversity preservation.

A major initiative of this project is to maintain the diversity of potatoes. Instead of producing a large amount of potatoes, a small amount is produced to conserve the different seed types. At this park, there were about 1,000 varieties. Some were stone-like, which provides food security because they can be stored for 15 to 20 years. One of the men at the park told us they store the seeds to preserve the varieties for future generations from climate change and other human disturbances for the food security of all people. The seed bank stored over 1,000 seeds at low temperatures to keep for prolonged periods of time before they begin to sprout.

The potato park.

The park also conserves traditional and sustainable methods of agriculture. Everything at the park is organic—no chemicals are used. The park was an example of how ecotourism can be a means for conservation because many come to the park from other countries to learn about the rich diversity of potatoes unique to Peru. This attention supports the project. The Quechu language and the wardrobe characteristic of native Andeans could be found in abundance at the park due to intentions to conserve these traditional aspects of their culture.

Climate change could affect the potato cultivation process because it results in the movement of disease-carrying insects, according to Worldwatch Institute. Those involved in this project at the Potato Park are seeking to discover potato varieties that are resilient to these and have already found seven.

Abra Malaga

The polylepis forest of Abra Malaga, which is mostly tropical, faces an array of anthropogenic effects. These include human activities that result in forest fragmentation, deforestation, climate change and modification of the land. This area is a target for conservation because it is an important habitat for birds. Three flagship species were chosen from the region to draw attention to conservation initiatives of this forest. These include the royal cinclodes, the ash-breasted tit-tyrant, and the white-browed tit-spinetail. Birders, hikers, researchers and tourists come to this region to marvel at its beauty. The paid entrance fee finances the mission to conserve the native species of the forest, especially the polylepis trees.

Hiking at Abra Malaga.

One part of this mission is a reforestation campaign. The community collects seedlings, grows them in greenhouses and then plants them in the field. The families are paid to help, which benefits the surrounding community. They have recently planted around 8,000, and since the inception of the project, 1.3 million trees have been planted.

Hiking through this forest, like movements through other regions in the Andes, displayed a portrait of livestock and cattle grazing. This makes the soil highly erodible and can reduce the number of seedlings that colonize. It can also reduce seedling growth and survival.

Animals grazing in the valley of Abra Malaga.

The impact of climate change on the environment was demonstrated at the polylepis forest. A large glacier that once extended to where the vegetation encroached 40 meters below is now much smaller due to the change in climate and temperatures, according to our guide. Glacier melting is a characteristic indicator of climate change.

The portrait of the Andes as a place of intense beauty and rich tradition is maintained by local projects—from cultural conservation, to reforestation campaigns and potato variety preservation. The Andes may not carry the same weight of environmental alarm as the “save the rainforest” campaign, but this ecosystem is equally valuable to those who come to admire its natural splendor and steadfast culture.

Natives of Sucusari: Meeting the Maijuna

Thoughts of “indigenous communities of Amazonia” often, with the help of inaccurate media portrayals and misunderstandings of native development, conjure mental images of remote and uncivilized tribes who speak solely in their native tongue and wear little clothing. An excursion to Sucusari to visit and learn about the Maijuna peoples revealed this as an imperfect rendering. Although their unique culture is intact, this is due to deliberate initiatives and thoughtful interactions with outsiders.

The Maijuna are one of Peru’s most vulnerable ethnic groups, according to Nature and Culture International, numbering fewer than 500 people. A Maijuna chief, Romero Rios, proposed for the establishment of a conservation area in 2008 that would protect the four remaining villages of their ancestral homeland in the Amazon. This resulted in the development of the Maijuna-Kichwa Regional Conservation Area in Peru’s northern Amazon. The reserve is larger than California’s Yosemite National park and protects close to one million acres of rainforest.

“This conservation success happened because of the vision of the government, our assistance and support over many years, and because these indigenous communities held firmly to the unbreakable bond between their ancient culture and their natural environment – and acted to preserve both,” Nature and Culture International stated on their website. “This reserve now protects a vast area of Amazon rainforest for the benefit of local people and all of its extraordinary biological diversity, including tapirs, jaguars and giant river otters.”

Their way of life certainly provides a stark contrast to the American and modern lifestyles. The Maijuna village I visited with students of the School for Field Studies proved to be ingenious caretakers of their environment, making use of their resources on land and the freedom of movement offered by river. The Maijuna community align with an attitude of openness, providing outsiders a chance to gain an accurate grasp of their traditions and lifestyle.

Background of indigenous Amazonians

The debate of indigenous rights is centered around opposing narratatives—that of locals, outsiders, and the natives themselves. Throughout history, outsiders have entered the Amazon to practice activities that escalated deforestation including mining, logging, and the building of roads.

The Rubber Boom enriched various parts of Amazonia and brought in wealth before the collapse led to the disappearance of that prosperity. The natives were heavily affected by the boom and bust cycle of this period. It resulted in expansion of the market and left indigenous peoples with few options. Some assimilated and others fled to remote areas to live in voluntary isolation.

Some Peruvians benefited from modernization, including those who enjoyed the expansion of the market and the affluence it provided. However, the indigenous cultures were left without rights and plundered by outside forces.

Throughout history, rivers were the main form of communication for the native people of Amazonia. Increasingly, roads are taking over as the primary source of connectivity, communication and economic development. They provide access to resources and opportunities for social integration. The very avenues that bring wealth are also a source of migrants, as well as loggers and individuals of other industries who convert lands into agricultural fields and pastures. Road construction, including that of the Trans-Amazonian Highway in Brazil, has occurred at the expense of natives because the roads cut through the lands of indigenous populations living in voluntary isolation. For this reason, indigenous groups including the Maijuna community have resisted the construction of roads near them.

Currently there is a debate regarding whether a road should run from within Amazonia to outside of it. Conservationists argue that this road would bring in more people who would exploit the environment that once belonged solely to natives.

Iquitos, Peru is the largest city in the world only reachable by boat or airplane, as it is surrounded by jungle. For this reason, "Tuk Tuks" and motorcycles are found in abundance here. This may change if a road is built leading to outside of the rainforest.

Alternatives exist including waterways and railways. Waterways, however, produce environmental damage to river ecosystems and fish species. Conservationists prefer the proposal for railways, but due to higher costs, none yet exist in Amazonia.

We came by river

Rivers are essential to the Maijuna peoples and other indigenous communities, and therefore became an essential component to our arrival to Sucusari where this group resides. We departed from Iquitos, Peru by boat and quickly hit the Amazon River. During a three-hour boat ride, we traveled along the Napo River, one of the major tributaries of the Amazon River. Then we took a turn down the Sucusari River which brought us to our destination, which was a 10-minute boat ride away from the Maijuna community.

Sucusari river bank.

Not only did these boat rides bring us to the Maijuna community each day, but they also provided us with chances to visually survey the region. Native people peered down on us at various locations along the river’s bank and often children slid down the mud into the water for a swim. Boating on the river provided us with ample opportunities to observe wildlife including a proliferation of exotic birds and the occasional river otter by day. Nighttime boat rides provided sights of sloths hanging from the trees along the river’s edge. On one of these occasions, we stopped at the mouth of the Napo and sat in silence, in awe of the night sky which had few spaces untouched by stars.

We came by river—a vital element of the Maijuna lifestyle. Rather than visiting the Maijuna village, we spent our first day in Sucusari studying the vertical structure of the jungle along a 10-story high canopy walkway followed by a recreational boat ride. For this reason, we came to know the rivers more intimately before meeting the community whose way of life is centered around these rivers.

Our first day meeting the Maijuna peoples began with introductions of the leaders of the community. They were surprisingly friendly and warm, despite expectations of hostility toward outsiders. Although it is rare for indigenous communities to be in total isolation in the present day, the openness of this Maijuna village was unique.

SFS instructor Dr. Mark Bowler, an expert in wildlife surveying and community conservation, has done research among this group. They showed him hunting trails and allowed his research team to track their gun usage to measure the impacts of hunting on wildlife. Welcoming both conservation initiatives and educational opportunities, the Maijuna people have a museum located at their village providing information on their lifestyle and indigenous protection projects.

Participatory mapping—an exercise that takes advantage of local community knowledge to draw out maps for research purposes— was a successful bonding experience between our group and the Maijuna peoples. It also revealed the extent of their dependence on the river system. Hand gestures, sketches and various levels of Spanish comprehension provided avenues of communication to construct a map. The main river along which the community is located cut through the center of the map and smaller rivers branched from it. Our new Maijuna friends explained the location of hunting trails and where certain animals are often sited in relation to the rivers.

Participatory mapping.

During the duration of our trip, they often shuffled between speaking Spanish and speaking in their native tongue. Knowledge of Spanish is essential to this group’s connectedness to outsiders. However, some younger members of the village expressed lack of interest in learning their native language. This potentially threatens its survival. Clothing is another factor that is skewed in the media’s representation of natives. Documentaries show indigenous Amazonians naked or using small cloths for sparse coverage. While this is true of few tribes, the Maijuna peoples wore t-shirts, jeans, skirts and dresses like those seen outside of the jungle or in Iquitos.

The land provides

Indigenous Amazonians, in contrast to some portrayals of them as uncivilized or savage, are resourceful regarding their use of nature while often being the best caretakers of the environment. Interacting with the Maijuna peoples revealed the numerous ways the forest provides for their various needs.

They gave us a tour of their “chacra,” which is Spanish for farmland. This is where they grew cacao, a tropical evergreen tree cultivated for its seeds which are a source of chocolate. Cacao is one of two major cash crops grown in Amazonia, the other being coffee which is more profitable. They cracked open the fruit and let us taste the sweet, gummy, white substance that surrounded the inner seeds.

Cacao.

Later, they showed us how to harvest the fruit from a pijuayo tree using a long stick to disconnect the bundle without needing to take the entire tree down. They allowed one of the SFS students to harvest some as well and later prepared the pijuayo as a gift for us to eat together.

SFS student Socrates Bassuk learns how to harvest pijuayo from a tall tree with the help of a Maijuna member.

Later that day, myself and a few other students met with a Maijuna family. We spoke with Nicolas who lives in a small home with his wife and two children. He took us on a walk while one of his daughters trailed behind him to show us where he makes jewelry.

Nicolas and his family enter their home.

On the way, he plucked a seed pod from an achiote tree and opened it to reveal the rich red substance inside. He explained that this is used to paint designs or masks on the face for celebrations, which is why the achiote tree is sometimes called the “lipstick tree.”

Nicolas holds seed pods of the achiote tree, used to paint on the skin.

The following day, we visited the community again for a chambira workshop. Chambira is a large palm they strip and boil to make bracelets, necklaces, earrings, bags, baskets and other crafts. We also walked through their medicine garden where they grow medicinal plants to cure various remedies, including headaches or “dolor de cabeza,” as it is said in Spanish.

Maijuna women demonstrate how to use the chambira palm for crafting.

Medicine men

Indigenous peoples take a unique approach to healing practices. Shamans are the medicine men of Amazonian tribes and we had the privilege of meeting two shamans from separate tribes while in Sucusari.

They showed us plants, fruits and bark and explained the curative purposes of these products. They treat respiratory problems, intestinal parasites, fungus on the skin, snake bites, and alleviate tribulations specific to the jungle. For example, certain forest products can be burned so that the smoke wards off mosquitoes and bats. They demonstrated how to use tobacco nicotine to kill mosquito larvae on the skin. Another product that serves the same purpose is “sangre de dragón” or “dragon’s blood.” This is sap from a tree, but it has the same deep red color of blood.

Dragon’s blood also lessens the urge to itch from mosquito bites and chiggers—mites that burrow into the skin in search of optimal feeding areas and insert their mouth parts. The shamans asked if we would like to try some, and because every student in our group had been experiencing the relentless irritation from chiggers and countless mosquito bites, we lifted our pants immediately and they applied the remedy to our skin.

A shaman treats an SFS student's chiggers with dragon's blood.

The shamans passed around cat’s claw, a plant named after its hook-like thorns. This product can be found in pulverized forms in the Belen Market in Iquitos, Peru and elsewhere. Cat’s claw is an anti-inflammatory and prevents cancer. The shamans, with the help of biologists, recently discovered that the leaves can be picked rather than extracting the entire plant and still maintain the same curative properties.

Shamans of Amazonia are most renowned for their ayahuasca ceremonies. Foreigners travel from other parts of the world to Iquitos solely to experience this hallucinogenic drug made from the vine of this plant. There are two forms named for the types of reactions they elicit—“Cielo,” meaning sky and “trueno,” meaning thunder. Referred to as the “soul vine,” ayahuasca serves an important and often spiritual purpose for tribes. According to the shamans we met, they have mixed feelings about the popular demand for the ayahuasca experience. They are glad people are coming to know the plant and to learn from it, but disappointed by the tendency to abuse it, use it irresponsibly, and use it for profit.

Before we left, the shamans performed a blessing over our group. We sat in front of one of the shamans with our eyes closed while he sung in his native tongue, shook a plant above our heads with tobacco on it to produce smoke and then rubbed oil on our palms for protection from spirits.

These are only a small sample of natives living in a single part of this immense jungle. However, close interactions provide insight into their way of life. This insight often differs from the understandings developed by outsiders who hyper-focus on extreme cases of untouched tribes. The Maijuna peoples and other natives of Sucusari are an example of indigenous groups who are open to forming positive relationships with outsiders who are willing to respect their culture.